Rocks could save the world (Yes, rocks)

The Canary Islands are home to Mount Teide, one of the world’s largest active volcanoes.

Capable of ==spewing== tens of millions of cubic meters of lava in a single eruption, Teide’s destructive power ==is nothing to scoff at== .

But there may be a way to use the ==basalt== rock inside Teide to save humanity.

That’s right—blowing up this volcano could offset Earth’s emissions for the foreseeable future.

Obviously, destroying an ancient volcano is not a good idea.

The ecological ==fallout== would be catastrophic and unpredictable.

But even if we harvested some of that basalt, could we really use it to stop climate change?

This theoretical scheme is a dramatic way to enhance one of Earth’s least dramatic natural processes: rock weathering.

Rock weathering occurs whenever it rains.

As falling rainwater mixes with atmospheric carbon dioxide, it becomes a weak acid that can ==eat away at== minerals called silicates.

And since silicates are in over 90% of Earth’s exposed rock, this happens pretty much anywhere rain hits stone.

As this acid reacts with the stone, the dissolved carbon dioxide in the rainwater turns into a new form called bicarbonate, which trickles downstream alongside the rain to the ocean.

Here, marine ==critters== use it to create structures like shells.

And when they die, those shells sink to the ==seafloor== , trapping that carbon dioxide in the ocean for ==millennia== .

This process has a massive impact on Earth’s climate.

When it’s warm and wet, the rock weathering speeds up, ==tempering== greenhouse warming.

When it’s cold and dry, the process slows down, building up atmospheric carbon dioxide.

But these effects take time—natural rock weathering balances Earth’s climate over millions of years.

Thankfully, experts working to sequester atmospheric carbon have plans to speed things up.

Two major factors determine the pace of this process: the types of rock exposed to weather and the amount of rock that’s exposed.

Silicates that form at higher temperatures tend to weather faster due to their chemical composition.

These rocks include those from Earth’s deep ==mantle== and volcanic rocks like basalt.

But piled up in a mountain, not very much rock is exposed.

So, some climate experts believe we should harvest that fast-weathering rock, ==crush== it, and spread it out to weather more rock in less time.

This sped-up process is called enhanced rock weathering, and it’s among the most practical plans we have for drawing down carbon.

Rather than needing to invent all-new technology, we can rely on existing systems for mining and processing rock.

And since agricultural communities have long known that volcanic rocks and soils can improve crop yield, farmlands could be the perfect ==dispersal== sites.

But for this approach to have impact, it needs to be deployed globally.

And even without ==demolishing== any volcanoes, large-scale solutions always come with large-scale problems.

First off, rock weathering—enhanced or otherwise—runs through the entire global water cycle.

Since this open system has more variables than we could ever account for, it’s difficult to measure enhanced rock weathering’s precise impact.

Second, despite existing mining technology, it would be a massive ecological and engineering challenge to ==quarry== , crush, transport, and spread this much rock.

The logistical difficulty of distributing this material would be similarly demanding.

And unless the energy used for both tasks came from mostly clean sources, it would undermine the project’s net carbon impact.

Finally, any endeavor that impacts Earth’s natural systems at this scale might have unpredictable side effects.

For example, quarried rocks might contain dangerous heavy metals or other unknown elements.

But these challenges aren’t reasons to abandon enhanced rock weathering—they’re just the first obstacles to implementing this promising strategy.

Simulations suggest a global enhanced rock weathering program that spreads 10 tons of basalt dust on every hectare of global farmland could ==sequester== over 200 ==gigatons== of CO₂ over a 75-year period.

Those are remarkable figures for an approach this cheap and practical, and they prove you don’t need to blow up a mountain to have a big impact.

Vocabulary, Phrases and Sentences

Words	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
spew	喷出；涌出；呕吐	/spjuː/
be nothing to scoff at	没什么可嘲笑的	/biː ˈnʌθɪŋ tuː skɒf æt/
basalt	玄武岩	/ˈbæslæt/
fallout	沉降物；附带结果	/ˈfɔːlaʊt/
eat away at	侵蚀；消耗	/ˈiːt əˈweɪ æt/
critter	生物；动物	/ˈkrɪtə(r)/
seafloor	海底	/ˈsiːflɔː(r)/
millennia	千年；千年期	/mɪˈleniə/
temper	脾气；情绪；回火	/ˈtempə(r)/
mantle	地幔；覆盖物	/ˈmæntl/
crush	压碎；挤压；碾碎	/ˈkrʌʃ/
dispersal	分散；传播	/ˈdɪspɜːsl/
demolish	拆除；摧毁	/ˈdeməlɪʃ/
quarry	采石场；猎物；费力地找	/ˈkwɒri/
sequester	使隔绝；使隐退；扣押	/ˈsiːkwestə(r)/
gigaton	十亿吨	/ˈdʒɪɡəˌtʌn/

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What staying up all night does to your brain

You’re just one Roman Empire history final away from a relaxing spring break.

But you still have so much to study!

So you decide to follow in the footsteps of many students before you and pull an all-nighter.

When you stay up all night, you’re fighting against your body’s natural circadian rhythms.

These are the cyclical changes that virtually all living things experience over the course of a 24-hour period—such as sleeping and waking—and they’re heavily influenced by light.

But for the moment, you’re alert and powering through the rule of Julius Caesar.

As the sun sets, your eyes send signals about the dwindling light to a part of your brain called the suprachiasmatic nucleus.

This is basically your circadian rhythm’s clock.

It alerts your pineal gland to start producing melatonin.

That’s the hormone that helps prepare your body for sleep, and levels start to rise about two hours before your normal bedtime.

At the same time, neurons in the hypothalamus and brain stem release a compound called GABA.

This slows down activity in your brain and can have a calming effect.

You’re approaching your normal bedtime.

Since the brain needs to cool down before sleep, your core body temperature starts to drop.

Huh, that map kind of looks like a face.

Uh-oh, your attention has started to drift.

Throughout the day, your brain has been releasing a waste product called adenosine.

The more adenosine latching onto receptors in your brain, the more tired and inattentive you become.

Time for a cup of coffee.

Caffeine blocks adenosine from binding to receptors, which can give you a boost of energy.

However, it might also make you jittery and increase your anxiety.

You’re acing these flashcards!

Right now these dates and names are being stored in an area of the brain called the hippocampus.

Normally when you go to sleep, memories like these are consolidated and slotted into long-term storage in your brain’s neocortex.

So it’s a good thing you only need to remember this information through tomorrow.

Microsleeps are unpredictable periods of sleep that last for only a few seconds and are triggered by sleep deprivation.

You stretch in an attempt to stay awake.

But at this point your motor skills have also taken a hit.

Studies have found that people who have been awake for 19 hours have similar coordination and reaction times as those who have been drinking.

As the sun rises, your pineal gland stops releasing melatonin.

You feel a “second wind” come on.

And despite everything, you leave for school in a really good mood.

Sleep deprivation can briefly induce euphoria.

It’s caused by a temporary boost in dopamine levels, which can unfortunately also lead to poor choices.

The final starts off well.

It’s all multiple choice!

But then you get to the essay portion.

It’s thought that during sleep, our brains process ideas and draw connections between new memories and old ones.

So your sleepless brain might be able to regurgitate facts, but you’re finding it more difficult to find patterns or problem solve.

You stare at the blank page, defeated.

You head up to your room, anxious and irritable.

Your amygdala, the part of the brain involved with processing emotion, is going haywire.

Your prefrontal cortex usually keeps your amygdala in check, but it still isn’t firing on all cylinders.

Your bed has never felt so sweet.

After one sleepless night, your body and brain bounce back pretty quickly.

Which is a good thing since we can’t always control how much sleep we get.

But going for long periods without a good night’s sleep or constantly changing your bedtime can take its toll.

Regularly getting less than seven hours of sleep each night is linked to all sorts of health issues, from diabetes to stroke to chronic pain.

It also leaves you more vulnerable to developing mental health issues like depression.

Your sleep schedule can even affect your grades.

Studies have shown that college students who keep regular sleep hours have, on average, a higher GPA than students who don’t.

So the next time you’re thinking of pulling an all-nighter, remember that Rome wasn’t built in a day, or for that matter, one night.

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NASA’s first software engineer: Margaret Hamilton - Matt Porter and Margaret Hamilton

At roughly 4 PM on July 20, 1969, ==mankind was just minutes away from landing on the surface of the moon== .

But before the astronauts began their final ==descent== , an emergency alarm lit up.

Something was ==overloading== the computer and threatened to ==abort the landing== .

Back on Earth, Margaret Hamilton held her breath.

She’d led the team developing the pioneering in-flight software, so she knew this mission ==had no room for error== .

But the ==nature== of this last-second emergency would soon prove her software was working exactly as planned.

Born 33 years earlier in Paoli, Indiana, Hamilton had always been ==inquisitive== .

In college, she studied mathematics and philosophy before taking a research position at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to pay for grad school.

Here, she encountered her first computer while developing software to support research into the new field of chaos theory.

Next, at MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory, Hamilton developed software for America’s first ==air defense system== to search for enemy aircraft.

But when she heard that renowned engineer Charles Draper was looking for help sending mankind to the moon, she immediately joined his team.

NASA ==looked to== Draper and his group of over 400 engineers to invent the first ==compact== digital flight computer, the Apollo Guidance Computer.

Using input from astronauts, this device would be responsible for guiding, navigating, and controlling the spacecraft.

At a time when unreliable computers filled entire rooms, the AGC needed to operate without any errors and ==fit in one cubic foot of space== .

Draper divided the lab into two teams: one for designing hardware and one for developing software.

Hamilton led the team that built the ==on-board== flight software for ==both the Command and Lunar Modules== .

This work, for which she ==coined== the term “software engineering,” was incredibly ==high stakes== .

==Human lives were on the line== , so every program had to be perfect.

Margaret’s software needed to quickly detect unexpected errors and recover from them in real time.

But this kind of adaptable program was difficult to build, since early software could only process jobs in a ==predetermined== order.

To solve this problem, Margaret designed her program to be “ ==asynchronous== ,” meaning the software’s more important jobs would interrupt less important ones.

Her team assigned every task a unique priority to ensure that each job occurred in the correct order and at the right time—regardless of any surprises.

After this breakthrough, Margaret realized her software could help the astronauts work in an ==asynchronous== environment as well.

She designed ==Priority Displays== that would interrupt astronauts’ regularly scheduled tasks to warn them of emergencies.

The astronaut could then communicate with Mission Control to determine the best path forward.

This marked the first time flight software communicated directly—and asynchronously—with a pilot.

It was these ==fail-safes== that triggered the alarms just before the lunar landing.

Buzz Aldrin quickly realized his mistake—he’d ==inadvertently== flipped the ==rendezvous== radar switch.

This radar would be essential on their journey home, but here it was using up vital computational resources.

Fortunately, the Apollo Guidance Computer was well equipped to manage this.

During the overload, the software restart programs allowed only the highest priority jobs to be processed—including the programs necessary for landing.

The Priority Displays gave the astronauts a choice: to land or not to land.

With minutes to spare, Mission Control gave the order.

The Apollo 11 landing was about the astronauts, Mission Control, software, and hardware all working together as an integrated system of systems.

Hamilton’s contributions were essential to the work of engineers and scientists inspired by President John F. Kennedy’s goal to reach the Moon.

And her life-saving work ==went far beyond== Apollo 11—no bugs were ever found in the in-flight software for any crewed Apollo missions.

After her work on Apollo, Hamilton founded a company that uses its unique universal systems language to create breakthroughs for systems and software.

In 2003, NASA honored her achievements with the largest financial award they’d ever given to an individual.

And 47 years after her software first guided astronauts to the moon, Hamilton was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom for changing the way we think about technology. # Vocabulary, Phrases and Sentences

Words	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
mankind was just minutes away from landing on the surface of the moon
descent
overload
abort the landing
had no room for error
nature
inquisitive
air defense system
look to
compact
fit in one cubic foot of space
on-board
both the Command and Lunar Modules
coin
high stake
Human lives were on the line
predetermined
asynchronous
priority display
fail-safe
inadvertently
rendezvous
went for beyond

Words	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
mankind was just minutes away from landing on the surface of the moon	人类距离登上月球表面只有几分钟了	/ˈmæŋkaɪnd wəz dʒʌst ˈmɪnɪts əˈweɪ frəm ˈlændɪŋ ɒn ðə ˈsɜːfɪs ɒv ðə muːn/
descent	下降；降落；血统	/ˈdiːsent/
overload	使超载；使负担过重	/ˈəʊvələʊd/
abort the landing	中止着陆	/əˈbɔːt ðə ˈlændɪŋ/
had no room for error	没有犯错的余地	/ˈhæd nəʊ ruːm fɔːr ˈerə(r)/
nature	自然；本性；性质	/ˈneɪtʃə(r)/
inquisitive	好奇的；好问的	/ɪnˈkwɪzətɪv/
air defense system	防空系统	/ˈeə(r) dɪˈfens ˈsɪstəm/
look to	指望；依靠；注意	/ˈlʊk tuː/
compact	紧凑的；紧密的；简洁的	/ˈkɒmpækt/
fit in one cubic foot of space	能装进一立方英尺的空间	/ˈfɪt ɪn wʌn ˈkjuːbɪk fuːt ɒv speɪs/
on-board	在船上；在飞机上；在板上	/ˈɒnˈbɔːd/
both the Command and Lunar Modules	指挥舱和登月舱	/ˈbəʊθ ðə kəˈmɑːnd ænd ˈluːnə(r) ˈmɒdjuːlz/
coin	硬币；创造（新词语）	/ˈkɔɪn/
high stake	高风险；高赌注	/ˈhaɪ steɪk/
Human lives were on the line	人的生命危在旦夕	/ˈhjuːmən laɪvz wəz ˈɒn ðə laɪn/
predetermined	预先确定的；预定的	/ˈpriːdɪˈtɜːmɪnd/
asynchronous	异步的	/ˈeɪsɪŋkrənəs/
priority display	优先级显示	/ˈpraɪˈɒrəti dɪˈspleɪ/
fail-safe	故障安全的；自动防故障的	/ˈfeɪlˈseɪf/
inadvertently	不经意地；无意中	/ˌɪnədˈvɜːtəntli/
rendezvous	会合；约会地点	/ˈrɒndɪvuː/
went far beyond	远远超出

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Why don’t Companies Want you to Repair your Stuff?

For centuries, to build any device, ==artisans== had to ==painstakingly== cut every ==screw== , ==bolt== , or ==nut== by hand.

But all this changed in the 1790s, when British ==metalworker== Henry Maudslay developed this highly precise ==lathe== .

Suddenly, ==these previously handmade components could be reproduced mechanically and at scale== .

This may seem like a simple innovation, but it had a profound effect on the world.

The standardization of these parts helped ==usher== in the Industrial Revolution.

From cars to home appliances, the 20th century was ==defined== by mass production and readily available ==interchangeable== parts.

This made repairing items relatively easy.

If your shower head ==gasket== failed or the hose for your washing machine ==sprang a leak== , a hardware store likely carried replacements.

Today, interchangeable parts are as important as ever for mass production.

However, some companies are working hard to prevent consumers from ==swapping out== components on their own.

In many cases, repair can only be done by the original manufacturer, ==if at all== .

With limited repair options available, we end up buying new and throwing more items out.

This is especially true for electronics.

In 2022, we discarded about 62 million tons of e-waste, along with billions of dollars’ worth of precious metals inside them.

So how exactly do companies prevent repair?

Some make it physically more difficult to fix items.

They can glue parts in place rather than using screws.

Others limit the information they share with consumers, like blocking public access to product information and ==schematics== .

During the pandemic, for instance, when hospitals struggled to maintain breaking medical equipment, the repair company iFixit compiled a comprehensive database of repair manuals for hospitals to use.

==Yet manufacturers like Steris fought for them to be taken down== .

Yet perhaps the most important, yet least obvious, way companies limit repair is by preventing the interchangeability of parts.

In a process known as parts pairing, companies assign individual parts like screens, batteries, or sensors a unique serial number.

The device’s internal software can then detect if those components are replaced and limit their functionality as a result.

If you swap the screen on two ==brand== new iPhones, for example, the automatic ==brightness== adjustment will no longer work.

In other cases, unauthorized replacements can cause the device to stop functioning altogether.

If a farmer uses an independent shop to repair certain parts in a John Deere tractor, it won’t operate until a company technician ==authenticates== the new part using authorized software.

With only a limited number of company technicians available, this can easily create a ==bottleneck== , costing farmers precious time and money, and even jeopardizing crops.

Manufacturers can also use software to give devices ==predetermined== ==end-of-life dates== , after which they no longer receive important updates and slowly become unusable.

All this gives manufacturers unprecedented control over the products we buy and limits the way we repair them.

Critics ==liken== these tactics to a form of planned ==obsolescence== , a manufacturing strategy where a product is deliberately designed to fail to keep both demand and profits high.

But companies pose two main arguments in defense of these practices.

First, they claim that giving consumers and third-party repair shops access to their software could create ==cybersecurity== risks.

They also argue that they could be ==liable== if a product malfunctions after a third party or consumer repair.

A ==shoddy== repair to a medical device, for instance, could have deadly consequences, and the manufacturer could be blamed.

However, major reports, like those from the U.S. Federal Trade Commission and the Food and Drug Administration, find little support for these company claims.

==Parts pairing and repair-limiting practices== are now being closely ==scrutinized== in courts all over the world, as consumers fight for the right to repair.

States, including Colorado and Oregon, have passed laws banning parts pairing.

Community-led movements have also taken root.

Over 2,500 cities across the globe, from Amsterdam to Boise to Bangalore, have established repair ==cafes== .

Here, people trade and share their knowledge, ==reinvigorating== a culture of repair at a time when it often feels easier to ==toss== our things than fix them.

Vocabulary, Phrases and Sentences

Word	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
artisan	工匠，技工	[ˈɑːtɪzn]
painstakingly	煞费苦心地，费力地	[ˈpeɪnzteɪkɪŋli]
screw	螺丝；拧，旋	[skruː]
bolt	螺栓；门闩；突然说出；逃跑	[bəʊlt]
nut	螺母，螺帽；坚果	[nʌt]
metalworker	金属加工工人	[ˈmetlwɜːkə(r)]
lathe	车床	[leɪð]
These previously handmade components could be reproduced mechanically and at scale	这些以前手工制作的部件可以大规模地机械复制
usher	引座员；招待员；引领，带领	[ˈʌʃə(r)]
interchangeable	可互换的，通用的	[ˌɪntəˈtʃeɪndʒəbl]
gasket	垫圈，密封垫	[ˈɡæskɪt]
spring a leak	出现裂缝
swap out	替换，更换
if at all	如果真的能（做某事）的话，表示一种很不确定的语气
schematics	原理图，示意图	[skiːˈmætɪks]
Yet manufacturers like Steris fought for them to be taken down	然而像斯特里思这样的制造商努力争取让它们被下架
brand new	全新	[brænd]
brightness	亮度；明亮；聪明	[ˈbraɪtnəs]
authenticate	鉴定，认证；证明……是真实的	[ɔːˈθentɪkeɪt]
bottleneck	瓶颈；阻碍	[ˈbɒtlnek]
predetermine	预先确定，预先决定	[ˌpriːdɪˈtɜːmɪn]
end-of-life date	使用寿命结束日期
liken	把……比作	[ˈlaɪkən]
obsolescence	过时，淘汰	[ˌɒbsəˈlesns]
cybersecurity	网络安全	[ˈsaɪbəkɪərɪti]
liable	有责任的，可能的	[ˈlaɪəbl]
shoddy	劣质的，粗制滥造的	[ˈʃɒdi]
parts pairing and repair-limiting practices	零件配对和限制维修的做法
scrutinize	仔细检查，审查	[ˈskruːtənaɪz]
cafe	便利商店	[ˈkæfeɪ]
reinvigorate	使恢复活力，使重新振作	[ˌriːɪnˈvɪɡəreɪt]
toss	扔，抛；猛抬（头）；摇匀；辗转反侧	[tɒs]

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The Dark History of Zombies

Animated ==corpses== appear in stories all over the world throughout recorded history.

But zombies have a distinct lineage—one that traces back to ==Equatorial== and Central Africa.

The first clue is in the word “zombie” itself.

Its exact ==etymological== origins are unknown, but there are several candidates.

The ==Mitsogho== people of ==Gabon== , for example, use the word “ndzumbi” for corpse.

The ==Kikongo== word “nzambi” refers variously to the supreme being, an ancestor with ==superhuman== abilities, or another ==deity== .

And, in certain languages spoken in ==Angola== and the Congo, “zumbi” refers to an object ==inhabited== by a spirit, or someone returned from the dead.

There are also similarities in certain cultural beliefs.

For example, in Kongo tradition, it’s thought that once someone dies, their spirit can be housed in a physical object which might bring protection and good luck.

Similar beliefs about what might happen to someone’s soul after death are held in various parts of Africa.

Between 1517 and 1804, France and Spain enslaved hundreds of thousands of African people, taking them to the Caribbean island that now contains Haiti and the ==Dominican== Republic.

There, the religious beliefs of enslaved African people mixed with the Catholic traditions of colonial authorities, and a religion known as “vodou” developed.

According to some vodou beliefs, a person’s soul can be captured and stored, becoming a ==body-less== “zombi.”

Alternatively, if a body isn’t properly attended to soon after death, a ==sorcerer== called a “ ==bokor== ” can capture a corpse and turn it into a soulless zombi that will perform their ==bidding== .

Historically, these zombis were said to be put to work as laborers who needed neither food nor rest and would enrich their captor’s fortune.

In other words, zombification seemed to represent the horrors of enslavement that many Haitian people experienced.

It was the worst possible fate: a form of enslavement that not even death could free you from.

The zombi was ==deprived== of an ==afterlife== and trapped in eternal ==subjugation== .

Because of this, in Haitian culture, zombis are commonly seen as victims deserving of sympathy and care.

The zombie underwent a transformation after the US occupation of Haiti began in 1915—this time, through the lens of Western pop culture.

During the occupation, US citizens propagated many racist beliefs about Black Haitian people.

Among false accounts of devil worship and human sacrifice, zombie stories captured the American imagination.

And in 1932, zombies ==debuted== on the big screen in a film called “White Zombie.”

Set in Haiti, the film’s ==protagonist== must rescue his fiancée from an evil vodou master who runs a sugar ==mill== using zombi labor.

==Notably== , the film’s main object of sympathy isn’t the enslaved workforce, but the victimized white woman.

Over the following decades, zombies appeared in many American films, usually with loose references to Haitian culture, though some ==veered== off to involve aliens and Nazis.

Then came the wildly influential 1968 film “ ==Night of the Living Dead== ,” in which a group of strangers tries to survive an ==onslaught== of slow-moving, flesh-eating monsters.

The film’s director remarked that he never ==envisioned== his living dead as zombies.

Instead, it was the audience who recognized them as such.

But from then on, zombies became linked to an ==insatiable== craving for flesh—with a particular taste for brains added in 1985’s “The Return of the Living Dead.”

In these and many subsequent films, no sorcerer controls the zombies; they’re the monsters.

And in many ==iterations== , later ==fueled== by 2002’s “28 Days Later,” zombification became a ==contagious== phenomenon.

For decades now, artists around the world have used zombies to shine a light on the social ills and anxieties of their moment—from consumer culture to the global lack of disaster ==preparedness== .

But, in effect, American pop culture also initially erased the zombie’s origins— ==cannibalizing== its original significance and transforming the victim into the monster.

在有记录的历史中，世界各地的故事里都出现过会动的==尸体==。

但僵尸有着独特的渊源——可以追溯到==赤道地区==和中非。

第一条线索就藏在“僵尸”这个词本身。

其确切的==词源==尚不清楚，但有几种可能的来源。

例如，加蓬的==米佐戈人==用“ndzumbi”来表示尸体。

基孔戈语中的“nzambi”有多种含义，既指至高无上的神，也指具有==超人==能力的祖先，或是其他==神灵==。

在安哥拉和刚果使用的某些语言中，“zumbi”指被灵魂附身的物体，或是从死人复生的人。

某些文化信仰中也存在相似之处。

例如，在刚果的传统观念里，人们认为人死后，其灵魂可以寄居在某个实物中，这可能会带来保护和好运。

非洲各地对于人死后灵魂归宿有着类似的信仰。

1517年至1804年间，法国和西班牙奴役了数十万非洲人，并将他们带到了如今包含海地和==多米尼加==共和国的加勒比岛屿。

在那里，被奴役的非洲人的宗教信仰与殖民当局的天主教传统相融合，一种名为“伏都教”的宗教由此发展起来。

根据一些伏都教的信仰，人的灵魂可以被捕获并储存起来，成为一个没有身体的“僵尸”。

或者，如果尸体在死后不久没有得到妥善照料，一个被称为“==博科尔==”的==巫师==可以捕获尸体，并将其变成一个没有灵魂的僵尸，听从他们的==吩咐==。

从历史上看，这些僵尸据说会被当作劳工使用，他们既不需要食物也不需要休息，会为捕获者带来财富。

换句话说，僵尸化似乎代表了许多海地人所经历的奴役之恐怖。

这是最悲惨的命运：一种即使死亡也无法解脱的奴役形式。

僵尸被剥夺了==来世==，被困在永恒的==奴役==之中。

正因如此，在海地文化中，僵尸通常被视为值得同情和关爱的受害者。

1915年美国开始占领海地后，僵尸经历了一次转变——这一次，是通过西方流行文化的视角。

占领期间，美国公民传播了许多关于海地黑人的种族主义观念。

在关于崇拜恶魔和人祭的虚假描述中，僵尸故事激发了美国人的想象力。

1932年，僵尸在一部名为《白色僵尸》的电影中首次登上大银幕。

这部电影以海地为背景，主人公必须从一个邪恶的伏都教大师手中救出他的未婚妻，这个大师利用僵尸劳工经营一家糖厂。

==值得注意的是==，这部电影中主要的同情对象不是被奴役的劳动力，而是受害的白人女性。

在接下来的几十年里，僵尸出现在许多美国电影中，通常只是松散地提及海地文化，不过有些电影==偏离主题==，涉及到外星人和纳粹。

随后出现了极具影响力的1968年电影《==活死人之夜==》，一群陌生人试图在一群行动迟缓、食肉的怪物的==袭击==中求生。

这部电影的导演表示，他从未将自己塑造的活死人视为僵尸。

相反，是观众将它们认作僵尸。

但从那时起，僵尸就与对肉的==贪得无厌==的渴望联系在一起——1985年的《活死人归来》还特别加上了对大脑的嗜好。

在这些以及许多后续电影中，没有巫师控制僵尸；它们就是怪物。

在许多==版本==中，后来在2002年的《惊变28天》的推动下，僵尸化变成了一种==传染性==现象。

几十年来，世界各地的艺术家都用僵尸来揭示他们所处时代的社会弊病和焦虑——从消费文化到全球缺乏灾难==准备==。

但实际上，美国流行文化最初也抹去了僵尸的起源——==蚕食==了它原本的意义，将受害者变成了怪物。

Vocabulary, Phrases and Sentences

Word	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
corpse	尸体	/kɔːps/
equatorial	赤道的	/ˌekwəˈtɔːriəl/
etymological	词源的	/ˌetɪməˈlɒdʒɪkl/
mitsogho	（可能是特定语境下的词，无常见准确释义）
gabon	加蓬（非洲国家）
kikongo	金刚果语
superhuman	超人的；超乎常人的	/ˌsuːpəˈhjuːmən/
deity	神；女神	/ˈdeɪəti/
angola	安哥拉（非洲国家）
inhabit	居住于；栖息于	/ɪnˈhæbɪt/
dominican	多米尼加的；多米尼加人	/dəˈmɪnɪkən/
body-less	无身体的
sorcerer	巫师；魔法师	/ˈsɔːsərə(r)/
bokor	（伏都教中的）巫师
bidding	命令；请求；出价	/ˈbɪdɪŋ/
deprive	剥夺；使丧失	/dɪˈpraɪv/
afterlife	来世；死后的生活
subjugation	征服；镇压；克制	/ˌsʌbdʒuˈɡeɪʃn/
debut	首次亮相；初次登台，音标为	/ˈdeɪbjuː/
protagonist	主角；主人公	/ˌprəʊtəˈɡənɪst/
mill	磨坊；工厂；磨粉机	/mɪl/
notably	显著地；尤其	/ˈnəʊtəbli/
veer	转向；改变方向；偏离	/vɪə(r)/
night of the living dead	活死人之夜
onslaught	攻击；猛攻	/ˈɒnslɔːt/
envision	想象；预想	/ɪnˈvɪʒn/
insatiable	贪得无厌的；不知足的	/ɪnˈseɪʃəbl/
iteration	迭代；重复	/ˌɪtəˈreɪʃn/
fuel	燃料；给……提供燃料	/ˈfjuːəl/
contagious	传染性的；有感染力的	/kənˈteɪdʒəs/
preparedness	准备状态；预备
cannibalize	拆用……的零件；同类相食	/ˈkænɪbəlaɪz/

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How Could so Many People Support Hitler

In ==Jerusalem== , on April 11th, 1961, Adolf Eichmann ==stood trial== for crimes against humanity.

Eichmann had been a Nazi official ==tasked== with organizing the transport of over 1.5 million European Jews to ==ghettos== and ==concentration camps== .

He was popularly described as an evil ==mastermind== who ==orchestrated== ==atrocities== from a ==cushy== German office, and many were eager to see the so-called “desk murderer” ==tried== for his crimes.

But the ==squeamish== man who took the ==stand== seemed more like a ==dull== ==bureaucrat== than a ==sadistic== killer.

The ==disparity== between Eichmann’s nature and his actions was unsettling for many viewers, but for philosopher Hannah Arendt, this ==contradiction== inspired a ==disturbing== ==revelation== .

Arendt was a German Jew who ==fled== her homeland in 1933 after being briefly imprisoned by the German secret police.

As a refugee in France and then the United States, she dedicated herself to understanding how the Nazi regime came to power, and more specifically, how it inspired so many atrocities.

A common opinion at the time was that the Third ==Reich== was a historical oddity: a perfect storm of uniquely evil leaders supported by German citizens looking for revenge after their ==defeat== in World War I.

But Arendt believed the true conditions behind this unprecedented rise of ==totalitarianism== weren’t specific to Germany.

Throughout the 1950s, Arendt developed a theory of the human condition that divided life into three facets: labor—in which we satisfy our material needs and desires; work—in which we build the world’s physical and cultural infrastructure; and action—in which we publicly ==articulate== our values to collectively shape the world around us.

It was this last facet, the life of action, that Arendt believed was under attack, both in Germany and many other industrialized societies.

She saw him as an age ruled by labor, where individuals mainly appear in the social world to produce and consume goods and services rather than share ideas and shape communities.

Arendt believed this had fostered societies and ideologies where individuals were seen only for their economic value, rather than their moral and political capacities.

She believed this isolated people from their neighbors and their sense of self.

And in her 1951 book, The Origins of Totalitarianism, Arendt argued these conditions provided ==fertile ground== for totalitarian regimes, which use fear and violence to increase isolation and make it dangerous to publicly ==engage as== ==freethinking== ==political agents== .

In this lonely state, participating in the regime becomes the only way to recover a sense of identity and community.

Arendt believed it was this kind of environment where Eichmann committed his crimes.

Most people expected the Jewish German philosopher to judge the ex-Nazi harshly.

But while she condemned his ==monstrous== actions, Arendt saw no evidence that Eichmann himself was ==uniquely== evil.

She saw him as ==a distinctly ordinary man== who considered diligent ==obedience== the highest form of civic duty.

And for Arendt, it was exactly this ordinariness that was most terrifying.

Her point wasn’t just that anyone could do what Eichmann did, but that his story suggested ordinary people could willingly accept their ==societal== role—even when it contributed to ==genocide== .

Arendt called this phenomenon “the ==banality== of evil,” and warned that it can emerge whenever society ==inhibits== our ability to think; or more specifically, to question our beliefs and actions in a self-reflective internal dialogue.

Arendt believed this kind of thinking is the only way to confront moral problems, and that our responsibility to self-reflect is especially important when independent thought is threatened.

She acknowledged that critical thinking in ==oppressive== spaces is a ==defiant== act that requires personal courage.

But it must be done regardless, which is why Arendt still held Eichmann accountable.

This thread runs throughout Arendt’s work, where she continually insisted that thinking was our greatest weapon against the threats of modernity.

Namely, a ==relentless== drive for economic and technological development which would increase social ==alienation== and inhibit human freedom.

To foster this essential value, Arendt believed we need to create formal and informal forums that allowed for open conversations about shaping our collective future.

These might include ==townhall== meetings, self-governing workplaces, or student unions.

But whatever shape they take, what’s most important to Arendt is that they value open dialogue and critical self-reflection.

1961年4月11日，阿道夫·艾希曼在耶路撒冷因反人类罪受审。

艾希曼曾是一名纳粹官员，负责组织将150多万欧洲犹太人运往犹太人聚居区和集中营。

他被普遍描述为一个邪恶的主谋，在德国舒适的办公室里策划了种种暴行，许多人急切地想看到这个所谓的“办公桌凶手”为其罪行受审。

但站在证人席上的这个神经质的男人，看起来更像一个乏味的官僚，而不是一个虐待狂杀手。

艾希曼的本性与他的行为之间的差异让许多观众感到不安，但对哲学家汉娜·阿伦特来说，这种矛盾引发了一个令人不安的启示。

阿伦特是一名德国犹太人，1933年她被德国秘密警察短暂监禁后逃离了祖国。

作为一名在法国和后来美国的难民，她致力于理解纳粹政权是如何掌权的，更具体地说，它是如何引发如此多暴行的。

当时的一种普遍观点是，第三帝国是一个历史怪胎：由一战战败后寻求复仇的德国公民支持的极端邪恶领导人的完美风暴。

但阿伦特认为，这种极权主义前所未有的崛起背后的真正情况并非德国所特有。

在整个20世纪50年代，阿伦特发展了一种关于人类状况的理论，将生活分为三个方面：劳动——在其中我们满足物质需求和欲望；工作——在其中我们构建世界的物质和文化基础设施；行动——在其中我们公开表达自己的价值观，以集体塑造我们周围的世界。

正是这最后一个方面，即行动的生活，阿伦特认为在德国和许多其他工业化社会中受到了攻击。

她将现代性视为一个由劳动统治的时代，在这个时代，个人主要在社会世界中出现是为了生产和消费商品及服务，而不是分享想法和塑造社区。

阿伦特认为，这催生了这样的社会和意识形态，在其中个人仅仅因其经济价值而被看待，而不是因其道德和政治能力。

她认为这使人们与邻居和自我意识隔绝。

在她1951年的著作《极权主义的起源》中，阿伦特认为这些情况为极权主义政权提供了肥沃的土壤，极权主义政权利用恐惧和暴力来加剧孤立，并使作为自由思考的政治主体公开参与变得危险。

在这种孤独的状态下，参与政权成为恢复身份感和社区感的唯一途径。

阿伦特认为，正是在这种环境下艾希曼犯下了他的罪行。

大多数人期望这位犹太裔德国哲学家严厉地评判这位前纳粹分子。

但尽管她谴责了他的暴行，阿伦特没有看到证据表明艾希曼本人是独特的邪恶。

她认为他是一个非常普通的人，认为勤奋服从是公民责任的最高形式。

对阿伦特来说，正是这种平凡最令人恐惧。

她的观点不仅仅是任何人都可能做出艾希曼所做的事情，而是他的故事表明普通人可以心甘情愿地接受他们在社会中的角色——即使这导致了种族灭绝。

阿伦特将这种现象称为“恶的平庸性”，并警告说，每当社会抑制我们思考的能力时，或者更具体地说，抑制我们在自我反思的内心对话中质疑自己的信仰和行为的能力时，这种现象就可能出现。

阿伦特认为这种思考是面对道德问题的唯一途径，并且当独立思考受到威胁时，我们进行自我反思的责任尤为重要。

她承认在压迫性环境中的批判性思考是一种需要个人勇气的反抗行为。

但无论如何都必须这样做，这就是为什么阿伦特仍然认为艾希曼负有责任。

这条线索贯穿阿伦特的作品，她在其中不断坚持认为思考是我们对抗现代性威胁的最强大武器。

也就是说，对经济和技术发展的不懈追求会加剧社会疏离并抑制人类自由。

为了培养这种至关重要的价值观，阿伦特认为我们需要创建正式和非正式的论坛，允许就塑造我们的集体未来进行公开对话。

这些可能包括市政厅会议、自治的工作场所或学生会。

但无论它们采取何种形式，对阿伦特来说最重要的是它们重视公开对话和批判性的自我反思。 # Vocabulary, Phrases and Sentences

Word	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
stand trial	受审判
task	拍给某人（工作）
ghetto	贫民窟	/ˈgɛtoʊz/
concentration camp	集中营
mastermind	策划者
orchestrate	策划
atrocity	暴行
cushy	安逸的
squeamish	诚实谨慎的	/ˈskwiːmɪʃ/
dull	迟钝的
bureaucrat	官僚主义
sadistic	虐待狂的
disparity	差距
contradiction	矛盾
disturbing revelation	令人不安的其实
fled	逃走
the third reich	第三帝国
defeat	失败
totalitarianism	极权主义	/toʊˌtæləˈteriənɪzəm/
articulate	表达
modernity	现代性
fertile ground	肥沃的土壤
engage as	作为
freethinking	自由思考
political agent	政治代理人
monstrous	野兽的
a distinctly ordinary man	一个非常普通的人
obedience	服从
societal	社会的
genocide	种族灭绝的
banality	平庸
inhibit	抑制
oppressive	压迫的
defiant	挑衅的
relentless	坚韧的
alienation	疏远
townhall	市政厅
Jerusalem	耶路撒冷

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The Warrior Who Defeated the Mighty Mughals - Stephanie Honchell Smith

In warfare, in command, in sound judgement, and in administration, he had no equal.——

In 1624, Mughal Emperor Jahangir received word of yet another defeat at the hands of his greatest enemy, Malik Ambar.

Despite coming to India as an enslaved youth, Ambar had risen to rule over the Indian sultanate of Ahmednagar.

His brilliant military ==tactics== had brought the Mughals’ march of conquest to a ==screeching== ==halt== .

Jahangir was so obsessed with defeating his rival that he ==commissioned== a painting of himself shooting an arrow at Ambar’s ==skull== .

Malik Ambar was born in the late 1540s in central Ethiopia as Chapu, a member of the Oromo people.

Every year, as part of ==ongoing== conflicts with their neighbors, Oromo youth were among the thousands of Ethiopians captured and sold into the Indian Ocean slave trade.

In this part of the world, enslaved individuals retained some legal rights, and enslavers could be held accountable for severe ==mistreatment== .

There was also less legal discrimination against previously enslaved people, allowing some individuals who gained their freedom to acquire great wealth and power.

However, these circumstances shouldn’t ==overshadow== the trauma of enslavement, which violently severed individuals from their lives and loved ones.

Around the age of 12, Chapu was among those taken into ==bondage== .

==Captives== were typically shipped to the Middle East or South Asia.

Women were sold into sexual slavery as concubines or forced to become domestic servants, a position in which they often had to endure harassment and sexual violence.

Men were either purchased for dangerous physical labor or by wealthy individuals who trained them to become servants of the political and military elite.

Chapu was part of the latter group.

He was taken to Baghdad, where he was educated in ==Arabic== among other subjects and ==converted== to Islam before being resold to the chief minister of Ahmednagar.

The minister himself was a formerly enslaved African, but after being freed, he had risen through the ranks, becoming ==second in command to the sultan himself== .

Chapu, now known as Malik Ambar, became the chief minister’s ==protégé== , observing him advise the sultan, ==enact== policies, and navigate court politics.

After the minister’s death, his widow granted Ambar’s freedom.

Like many newly freed Africans in India at the time, Ambar became a ==mercenary== soldier.

Ahmednagar was frequently under attack from Mughal invaders, who were determined to expand their empire.

But Ambar’s daring ==guerrilla== tactics ==derailed the invaders’ plans== by interrupting supply lines.

Ambar’s military success earned him a ==following== , and in 1600, he used his influence to take advantage of a royal power vacuum.

After placing a young puppet ruler on the ==throne== , Ambar became the ==regent== and new chief minister.

He also married his daughter to the new sultan, creating a direct tie to the royal family.

Not all parties were pleased with Ambar’s power grab, and the new sultan eventually conspired to remove Ambar from power.

But before these plans could take form, both conspirators were mysteriously poisoned.

The sultan’s five-year-old son was then placed on the throne, giving Malik Ambar, a once-enslaved ex-soldier, complete political, economic, and military control over Ahmednagar.

Ambar remained in power for over 25 years, bringing long-term stability to the ==embattled== region.

He built a new capital city, negotiated trade deals with Indian and European merchants, and reformed the tax system to better protect ==peasants== .

But most importantly, he continued to ==foil== the Mughal invasion.

His ==ragtag== army of local Indians, enslaved and newly freed Africans, was religiously and ethnically diverse, yet they were united by Ambar’s leadership.

He ==made up== for his lack of numbers by launching lightning attacks that ==demoralized== and exhausted the Mughal troops long before they reached the ==battlefield== .

Jealous of Ambar’s success and popularity, some of his enemies accused him of maintaining power through ==sorcery== or ==devil== ==worship== .

Others ==begrudgingly== acknowledged his ==piety== , generosity, and military genius.

Regardless, very few ever ==outmaneuvered== him.

Malik Ambar died of natural causes in 1626, leaving Ahmednagar to his son, who was unable to maintain his father’s military record.

Just seven years later, the sultanate finally fell to the Mughal forces, ==heralding== the fall of the kingdom Ambar had risen to lead.

Who was behind this ==ferocious== and seemingly unstoppable Mughal Empire?

Trace the rise and fall of one of the world’s wealthiest and most powerful dynasties with this video).

在战争、指挥、明智的判断和行政管理方面，无人能与他匹敌。——

1624年，莫卧儿皇帝贾汉吉尔得知自己在最大的敌人马利克·安巴尔手中又一次战败。

尽管安巴尔年轻时作为奴隶来到印度，但他后来崛起，统治了印度的艾哈迈德纳加尔苏丹国。

他卓越的军事 ==战术== 使莫卧儿人的征服步伐 ==戛然而止== 。

贾汉吉尔如此痴迷于击败对手，以至于他 ==委托== 创作了一幅自己向安巴尔的 ==头骨== 射箭的画。

马利克·安巴尔于16世纪40年代末出生在埃塞俄比亚中部，原名查普，是奥罗莫族人。

每年，作为与邻国持续冲突的一部分，奥罗莫族青年是数千名被俘虏并被卖入印度洋奴隶贸易的埃塞俄比亚人之一。

在世界的这个地区，被奴役的个人保留了一些合法权利，奴隶主可能会因严重 ==虐待== 而被追究责任。

对以前被奴役的人也较少存在法律歧视，这使得一些获得自由的人能够积累巨大的财富和权力。

然而，这些情况不应 ==掩盖== 奴役带来的创伤，奴役暴力地将个人与他们的生活和亲人分离。

大约12岁时，查普被带入 ==奴役== 之中。

==俘虏== 通常被运往中东或南亚。

女性被卖为性奴隶成为妾，或被迫成为家庭佣人，在这个职位上她们常常不得不忍受骚扰和性暴力。

男性要么被购买去从事危险的体力劳动，要么被富有的人买走，训练他们成为政治和军事精英的仆人。

查普属于后者。

他被带到巴格达，在那里他学习了包括 ==阿拉伯语== 在内的多种科目，并 ==皈依== 了伊斯兰教，之后被转卖给艾哈迈德纳加尔的首席部长。

这位部长本人曾是一名被奴役的非洲人，但获得自由后，他一路晋升，成为 ==仅次于苏丹本人的二号人物== 。

查普，现在被称为马利克·安巴尔，成为了首席部长的 ==门徒== ，观察他为苏丹出谋划策、 ==制定== 政策以及在宫廷政治中周旋。

部长去世后，他的遗孀给了安巴尔自由。

和当时印度许多新获得自由的非洲人一样，安巴尔成为了一名 ==雇佣军== 士兵。

艾哈迈德纳加尔经常受到决心扩张帝国的莫卧儿侵略者的攻击。

但安巴尔大胆的 ==游击== 战术通过切断补给线 ==打乱了侵略者的计划== 。

安巴尔的军事成功为他赢得了一批 ==追随者== ，1600年，他利用自己的影响力趁王室权力真空之际。

在扶植了一位年轻的傀儡统治者登上 ==王位== 后，安巴尔成为了 ==摄政王== 和新的首席部长。

他还把女儿嫁给了新苏丹，与王室建立了直接联系。

并非所有各方都对安巴尔夺取权力感到满意，新苏丹最终密谋将安巴尔赶下台。

但在这些计划成形之前，两名阴谋者都神秘地被毒死了。

然后，苏丹五岁的儿子登上了王位，让曾经身为奴隶的前士兵马利克·安巴尔完全掌控了艾哈迈德纳加尔的政治、经济和军事。

安巴尔掌权超过25年，为这个 ==饱受战乱的== 地区带来了长期稳定。

他建造了一座新的都城，与印度和欧洲商人谈判贸易协定，并改革税收制度以更好地保护 ==农民== 。

但最重要的是，他继续 ==挫败== 莫卧儿人的入侵。

他那由当地印度人、被奴役的人和新获得自由的非洲人组成的 ==乌合之众== 的军队，在宗教和种族上是多样化的，但他们在安巴尔的领导下团结在一起。

他通过发动闪电袭击来弥补人数上的不足，这些袭击在莫卧儿军队到达 ==战场== 之前很久就使他们士气低落、疲惫不堪。

一些敌人嫉妒安巴尔的成功和声望，指责他通过 ==巫术== 或 ==崇拜魔鬼== 来维持权力。

另一些人则 ==勉强== 承认他的 ==虔诚== 、慷慨和军事天才。

无论如何，很少有人能 ==智胜== 他。

马利克·安巴尔于1626年自然死亡，将艾哈迈德纳加尔留给了他的儿子，而他的儿子无法维持他父亲的军事成就。

仅仅七年后，苏丹国最终落入莫卧儿军队之手， ==宣告== 了安巴尔所崛起领导的王国的覆灭。

这个 ==凶猛== 且看似势不可挡的莫卧儿帝国背后是谁呢？

通过这个视频)追溯世界上最富有、最强大的王朝之一的兴衰历程。

Vocabulary, Phrases and Sentences

Word	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
tactic	策略
screech	尖叫
halt	暂停
commission	委托
skull	头骨
ongoing	持续存在的
mistreatment	虐待
overshadow	遮盖
bondage	束缚
captive	俘虏
Arabic	阿拉伯的
second in command to the sultan	苏丹的二把手
protégé	门生	/ˈproʊtəʒeɪ/
enact	通过（法律）
mercenary	唯利是图的
mercenary soldier	雇佣兵
guerrilla	游击队员	/ɡəˈrɪlə/
following	追随者
throne	王座
regent	摄政王
embattle	四面楚歌
peasant	农民
foil	挫败
ragtag	组织散漫的
make up	弥补
demoralize	使泄气
battlefield	战场
sorcery	巫术
devil	邪恶的
worship	崇拜
begrudgingly	不情愿的	/bɪˈɡrʌdʒɪŋli/
piety	虔诚	/ˈpaɪəti/
outmaneuver	以谋略制胜
heralding	预示
ferocious	残暴的

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Why Does February Only Have 28 Days

Although February 2015 ==might fit perfectly on the page== , every year ==it’s the runt of the monthly litter== .

This deficit of days, this calendar ==craziness== , this ==oddity== of the annum, like so much of modern culture, is the Romans’ fault.

Here’s the crazy story of why February has 28 days… except when it doesn’t.

Romulus, the maybe-mythical, maybe-real founder and first king of Rome, had a problem.

With an increasing number of festivals, feasts, military ceremonies, and religious celebrations to keep track of, Romans needed a calendar to organize all of them.

Ancient astronomers already had accurate calculations for the time between two solar ==equinoxes== or ==solstices== , but nature had given people a nice, easy pie chart in the sky to track the passage of time, so early Rome, like many other cultures, worked off a lunar calendar.

The calendar of the Romulan republic had ten months of either 30 or 31 days, beginning in March and ending in December, and we can still see traces of that calendar today.

Problem was, that year was a few days short of four seasons.

Romans were too busy not dying during winter to count those 61 and a quarter extra days… they’d just start the next year on the new moon before the spring equinox.

It’s actually not a bad system, as long as you don’t have to figure out what day it is between December and March.

So the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, tried something else.

Even numbers were bad luck in Ancient Rome, so Numa started by removing a day from all the even-numbered months.

And being loony for Luna, Numa wanted his calendar to cover 12 cycles of the moon, but that would have been an even number, so he rounded his year up to 355.

Numa split the remaining days into two months and tacked them on to the end of the year.

And that’s how February got 28 days.

Yes, it’s an even number, but since the month was dedicated to spiritual purification, Romans let that one slide.

But, as powerful as Rome may have been, they couldn’t change the rules of the universe, and neither of these calendars add up anywhere close to the time it takes us to orbit the sun.

After a few years, the seasons are out of ==whack== with the months, dogs and cats, living together, mass hysteria!!

Did we already use that joke?

This is where it gets even ==weirder== .

See, February was actually split in two parts.

The first 23 days and… the rest.

Every year, Numa’s superstitious calendar would be out of line with the seasons by a little more than 10 days.

So every other year, the last few days of February were ignored and a 27-day leap month was added after February 23rd or 24th.

This way every four years would average out to 366 and a quarter days… which is still too many days, but hey, we’re getting there.

Confused?

You should be.

Numa!

This system could have worked, every 19 years, lunar and solar calendars tend to line up, so add enough leap months to keep the seasons in order and eventually everything will reset itself.

Except these leap months weren’t always added according to plan.

Politicians would ask for leap months to extend their terms, or “forget” them to get their opponents out of office.

And if Rome was at war, sometimes the leap month would be forgotten for years, and by the time Julius Caesar came to power, things had gotten pretty confusing.

Caesar had spent a lot of time in Egypt, where 365-day calendars were all the rage, so in 46 BC, he ==flushed== Rome’s lunar calendar down the ==aqueduct== and installed a solar calendar.

January and February had already been moved to the beginning of the year, and Caesar added 10 days to different months to get a total of 365.

And since a ==tropical== year is a ==tad== longer than 365 days, Julius added a leap day every four years, except they inserted it after February 23, right in the middle of the month.

Apparently February is the trash heap of the calendar, just do whatever feels good.

For all their work to reform the calendar and other stuff they did, the 7th and 8th months of the year were ==renamed== for Julius and his successor Augustus Caesar, despite the fact that Pope Gregory would have to adjust it again in 1500 years.

But that’s a story for a different day.

Or month.

I don’t even know anymore.

Stay curious.

尽管2015年2月 ==在日历上看起来很合适== ，但每年 ==它都是月份中的小可怜== 。

天数的不足、日历的 ==混乱== 、一年中的 ==古怪之处== ，就像现代文化的许多方面一样，都要归咎于罗马人。

下面就是关于为什么二月有28天…… 除非情况并非如此的疯狂故事。

罗慕路斯，这位可能是神话人物、也可能真实存在的罗马城创建者及首任国王，遇到了一个问题。

随着节日、盛宴、军事仪式和宗教庆典的数量不断增加，罗马人需要一个日历来安排所有这些活动。

古代天文学家已经精确计算出了两次 ==春分== 或 ==冬至== 之间的时间，但大自然在天空中给人们提供了一个简单易懂的图表来记录时间的流逝，所以早期的罗马和许多其他文化一样，采用的是阴历。

罗马共和国的日历有十个月，每个月有30天或31天，从三月开始，到十二月结束，我们今天仍然可以看到那个日历的痕迹。

问题是，那一年比四季的时间少了几天。

罗马人在冬天忙着保命，无暇顾及那多出来的61又四分之一天…… 他们就在春分前的新月时开始新的一年。

实际上这是个不错的系统，只要你不用弄清楚十二月和三月之间是几号就行。

于是罗马的第二位国王努马·庞皮利乌斯尝试了别的办法。

在古罗马，偶数被认为是不吉利的，所以努马首先从所有偶数月中去掉了一天。

而且由于痴迷于月亮，努马希望他的日历涵盖12个月亮周期，但那会是个偶数，所以他把一年的天数凑到了355天。

努马把剩下的天数分成两个月，加到了一年的末尾。

二月就是这样有了28天。

没错，这是个偶数，但由于这个月是用于精神净化的，罗马人就没计较。

但是，尽管罗马曾经很强大，他们却无法改变宇宙的规律，而且这两种日历都与我们绕太阳公转所需的时间相差甚远。

几年后，季节和月份就 ==乱套== 了，狗和猫都生活在一起了，简直是大混乱！！

我们是不是已经用过那个笑话了？

接下来事情变得更 ==怪异== 了。

看，二月实际上被分成了两部分。

前23天和…… 剩下的部分。

每年，努马那迷信的日历都会与季节相差10多天。

所以每隔一年，二月的最后几天就被忽略，在2月23日或24日之后会增加一个27天的闰月。

这样每四年平均就有366又四分之一天…… 还是多了点，但嘿，我们正在接近正确答案。

困惑了？

你应该感到困惑。

努马！

这个系统本可以行得通的，每19年，阴历和阳历往往会对齐，所以添加足够的闰月来让季节保持顺序，最终一切都会自行重置。

只是这些闰月并不总是按计划添加。

政治家们会要求增加闰月来延长他们的任期，或者 “忘记” 添加闰月来让对手下台。

而且如果罗马处于战争状态，有时闰月会被遗忘数年，到尤利乌斯·恺撒掌权时，情况已经变得相当混乱了。

恺撒在埃及待了很长时间，那里365天的日历很流行，所以在公元前46年，他把罗马的阴历 ==冲进了== ==水渠== 里，采用了阳历。

一月和二月已经被移到了一年的开头，恺撒在不同的月份增加了10天，使一年总共有365天。

而且由于一个 ==回归年== 比365天 ==稍长== 一点，尤利乌斯每四年增加一个闰日，只是他们把闰日加在了2月23日之后，正好在二月中旬。

显然二月是日历中的垃圾场，想怎么来就怎么来。

尽管他们为改革日历以及做了其他诸多事情，但一年中的第七个月和第八个月还是 ==被重新命名== 以纪念尤利乌斯和他的继任者奥古斯都·恺撒，尽管1500年后教皇格列高利还得再次调整它。

但那是另一天的故事了。

或者另一个月的故事。

我现在都搞不清了。

保持好奇心。 ## Vocabulary, Phrases and Sentences

Word	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
runt	小矮个	/rʌnt/
litter	垃圾
oddity	古怪
equinox	春分
solstice	夏/冬至
whack	重击
weirder	诡异的
flushed	脸红的
aqueduct	渡槽，水渠
tropical	热带的
tad	一点儿
out of whack	不正常的
tropical year	回归年

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The Science of Falling in Love

Love is often described as heartwarming,heart-wrenching and even heartbreaking.

So, what does the brain have to do with it?

Everything!

==The journey from first spark to last tear is guided by a symphony of neurochemicals and brain systems.==

As you begin to fall for someone, you may find yourself excessively daydreaming about them, and wanting to spend more and more time together.

This first stage of love is what psychologists call ==infatuation, or passionate love== .

Your new relationship can feel almost ==intoxicating== , and ==when it comes to the brain, that’s not far from the truth== .

Infatuated individuals show increased activation in the ventral tegmental area.

The VTA is the reward-processing and motivation hub of the brain, firing when you do things like ==eat a sweet treat== , ==quench your thirst== , or in more extreme cases, take drugs of abuse.

Activation releases the “feel good” neurotransmitter dopamine, ==teaching your brain to repeat behaviors in anticipation of receiving the same initial reward==.

This increased VTA activity is the reason love’s not only ==euphoric== , but also draws you towards your new partner.

At this first stage, it may be hard to see any ==faults== in your new perfect partner.

This ==haze== is thanks to love’s influence on higher cortical brain regions.

Some newly infatuated individuals show decreased activity in the brain’s ==cognitive== center, ==the prefrontal cortex== .

As activation of this region allows us to engage in critical thought and pass judgment, it’s not surprising we tend to see new relationships through rose-colored glasses.

While this first stage of love can be an intense ==rollercoaster== of emotions and brain activity, it typically only lasts a few months, ==making way== for the more long-lasting stage of love, known as attachment, or compassionate love.

As your relationship develops, you may feel more relaxed and committed to your partner thanks in large part to two hormones: oxytocin and vasopressin.

Known as pair-bonding hormones, they signal trust, feelings of social support and attachment.

In this way, romantic love is not unlike other forms of love, as these hormones also help bond families and friendships.

Further, oxytocin can inhibit the release of stress hormones, which is why spending time with a loved one can feel so relaxing.

As early love’s suspension of judgment fades, it can be replaced by a more honest understanding and deeper connection.

Alternatively, as your rose-colored glasses begin to lose their ==tint== , problems in your relationship may become more evident.

No matter the reason a relationship ends, we can blame the pain that accompanies heartbreak on the brain.

==The distress of a breakup== activates the ==insular== cortex, a region that processes pain—both physical, like ==spraining== your ankle, as well as social, like the feelings of ==rejection== .

As days pass, you may find yourself once again daydreaming about or ==craving== contact with your lost partner.

The drive to reach out may feel overwhelming, like an extreme hunger or thirst.

When looking at photos of a former partner, heartbroken individuals again show increased activity in the VTA, the motivation and reward center that drove feelings of longing during the initial stages of the relationship.

This emotional ==whirlwind== also likely activates your body’s alarm system, the stress axis, leaving you feeling shaken and restless.

As time goes on, higher cortical regions which ==oversee== reasoning and impulse control, can ==pump== the brakes on this distress and craving signaling.

Given that these regions are still maturing and making connections through adolescence, it’s no wonder that first heartbreak can feel particularly ==agonizing== .

Activities like exercise, spending time with friends, or even listening to your favorite song can ==tame== this heartbreak stress response, while also triggering the release of feel-good neurotransmitter dopamine.

And given time and support, most can heal and learn from even the most ==devastating== heartbreak.

爱常常被形容为温暖人心、令人心痛甚至心碎。

那么，大脑与爱有什么关系呢？

息息相关！

==从最初的心动到最后的泪水，这一旅程由一系列神经化学物质和大脑系统引导。==

当你开始爱上某人时，你可能会发现自己过度地幻想他们，并且想要花越来越多的时间在一起。

爱情的第一阶段就是心理学家所说的 ==迷恋，或激情之爱== 。

你新的恋情可能会让人感觉几乎 ==如痴如醉== ，而 ==就大脑而言，这并非言过其实== 。

处于迷恋状态的人腹侧被盖区的激活会增强。

腹侧被盖区是大脑处理奖励和产生动机的中枢，当你做诸如 ==吃甜食== 、==解渴== 之类的事情时，或者在更极端的情况下，吸食毒品时，它就会被激活。

这种激活会释放“感觉良好”的神经递质多巴胺，==促使你的大脑重复这些行为，期待获得同样的初始奖励== 。

腹侧被盖区活动的增强不仅是爱情让人 ==欣喜若狂== 的原因，也是它将你吸引到新伴侣身边的原因。

在这个第一阶段，你可能很难看到你完美新伴侣的任何 ==缺点== 。

这种 ==朦胧感== 要归功于爱情对大脑更高皮层区域的影响。

一些刚陷入迷恋的人，其大脑的 ==认知== 中枢，即前额叶皮层的活动会减少。

由于这个区域的激活使我们能够进行批判性思考和做出判断，所以我们倾向于戴着玫瑰色眼镜看待新恋情也就不足为奇了。

虽然爱情的第一阶段可能是情感和大脑活动的激烈 ==过山车== ，但它通常只持续几个月，==为更持久的爱情阶段让路== ，这个阶段被称为依恋，或深情之爱。

随着你们关系的发展，在很大程度上要归功于两种激素，你可能会对伴侣感到更放松和更有归属感： 催产素和加压素。

它们被称为伴侣关系激素，传递信任、社会支持感和依恋感。

这样一来，浪漫之爱与其他形式的爱并无不同，因为这些激素也有助于维系家庭和友谊。

此外，催产素可以抑制压力激素的释放，这就是为什么与爱人共度时光会让人感觉如此放松。

随着早期爱情中判断的暂停逐渐消失，它可能会被更真实的理解和更深层次的联系所取代。

或者，当你的玫瑰色眼镜开始失去 ==色彩== 时，你们关系中的问题可能会变得更加明显。

无论一段关系结束的原因是什么，我们都可以将心碎带来的痛苦归咎于大脑。

==分手的痛苦== 会激活脑岛皮层，这个区域处理身体疼痛，比如 ==扭伤== 脚踝，也处理社交疼痛，比如被 ==拒绝== 的感觉。

随着时间的推移，你可能会发现自己再次幻想或 ==渴望== 与失去的伴侣联系。

想要联系的冲动可能会让人感觉难以抗拒，就像极度的饥饿或口渴一样。

当看到前任伴侣的照片时，心碎的人腹侧被盖区的活动会再次增强，腹侧被盖区是在恋情最初阶段引发渴望感的动机和奖励中枢。

这种情感 ==旋风== 也可能会激活你身体的警报系统，即应激轴，让你感到震惊和不安。

随着时间的推移，负责 ==监督== 推理和冲动控制的更高皮层区域可以 ==踩下刹车== ，抑制这种痛苦和渴望信号。

鉴于这些区域在整个青春期仍在发育并建立联系，难怪第一次心碎会感觉格外 ==痛苦== 。

像锻炼、与朋友共度时光，甚至听你最喜欢的歌曲这样的活动可以 ==缓解== 这种心碎的应激反应，同时还会触发感觉良好的神经递质多巴胺的释放。

并且只要有时间和支持，大多数人即使经历了最 ==毁灭性== 的心碎也能痊愈并从中学习。

Vocabulary, Phrases and Sentences

Word	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
The journey from first spark to last tear is guided by a symphony of neurochemicals and brain systems	从最初的心动到最后的泪水，这段旅程由一系列神经化学物质和大脑系统共同引导
symphony	交响乐
infatuation	迷恋，热恋
passionate love	热烈的爱
intoxicating	令人陶醉的的
eat a sweet treat	吃甜食
quench your thirst	解渴
euphoric	兴高采烈地	/juːˈfɔːrɪk/
haze	薄雾
prefrontal	前额的
cortex	皮质
rollercoaster	过山车
make way for	让路
tint	色调
insular	岛屿的
sprain	扭伤
crave	渴望
whirlwind	旋风
oversee	监督
pump	抽水机
agonize	苦苦思索，焦虑不已
tame	驯服
devastate	摧毁

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The Myth of Cupid and Psyche

“Beauty is a ==curse== ,” Psyche thought as she looked over the cliff’s edge where she’d been abandoned by her father.

She’d been born with the physical perfection so complete that she was worshipped as a new ==incarnation== of Venus, the goddess of love.

But real-life human lovers were too ==intimidated== even to approach her.

When her father asked for guidance from the Oracle of Apollo, the god of light, reason, and ==prophecy== .

He was told to abandon his daughter on a rocky crag, where she would marry a ==cruel and savage serpent-like winged evil== .

Alone on the crag, Psyche felt Zephyr the West ==Windgently== lifting her into the air.

It set her down before a palace.

” ==You are home== ,” she heard an unseen voice say.

“Your husband awaits you in the bedroom, if you dare to meet him.”

She was brave enough, Psyche told herself.

The bedroom was so dark that she couldn’t see her husband.

But he didn’t feel serpent-like at all.

His skin was soft, and his voice and manner were gentle.

She asked him who he was, but he told her this was the one question he could never answer.

If she loved him, she would not need to know.

His visits continued ==night after night== .

Before long, Psyche was pregnant.

She rejoiced, but was also ==conflicted== .

How could she raise her baby with a man she’d never seen?

That night, Psyche approached her sleeping husband holding an oil lamp.

What she found was the god Cupid who sent gods and humans ==lusting after== each other with the ==pinpricks== of his arrows.

Psyche dropped her lamp, burning Cupid with hot oil.

He said he’d been in love with Psyche ever since his jealous mother, Venus, asked him to embarrass the young woman by ==pricking== her with an arrow.

But taken with Psyche’s beauty, Cupid used the arrow on himself.

He didn’t believe, however, that gods and humans could love as equals.

Now that she knew his true form, their hopes for happiness were dashed, so he flew away.

Psyche was left in despair until the unseen voice returned and told her that it was indeed possible for her and Cupid to love each other as equals.

Encouraged, she set out to find him.

But Venus ==intercepted== Psyche and said she and Cupid could only wed if she completed a series of impossible tasks.

First, Psyche was told to sort a huge, messy pile of seeds in a single night.

==Just as she was abandoning hope== , an ant colony ==took pity== on her and helped with the work.

Successfully passing the first trial, Psyche next had to bring Venus the ==fleece== of the golden sheep, who had a reputation for ==disemboweling== ==stray== adventurers, but a river god showed her how to collect the fleece the sheep had ==snagged== on ==briars== , and she succeeded.

Finally, Psyche had to travel to the Underworld and convince Proserpina, queen of the dead, to put a drop of her beauty in a box for Venus.

Once again, the unseen voice came to Psyche’s aide.

It told her to bring barley cakes for Cerberus, the guard dog to the Underworld and coins to pay the boatman, Charon to ferry her across the river ==Styx== .

With her third and final task complete, Psyche returned to the land of the living.

Just outside Venus’s palace, she opened the box of Proserpina’s beauty, hoping to keep some for herself.

But the box was filled with sleep, not beauty, and Psyche collapsed in the road.

Cupid, now recovered from his wounds, flew to his sleeping bride.

He told her he’d been wrong and foolish.

Her ==fearlessness in the face of the unknown proved== that ==she was more than his equal== .

Cupid gave Psyche ==amborsia== , the ==nectar== of the gods, making her ==immortal== .

Shortly after, Psyche bore their daughter.

They named her Pleasure, and she, Cupid, and Psyche, whose name means soul, have been complicating people’s love lives ever since.

“美貌是一种 ==诅咒== ，”普绪刻望着悬崖边缘，心中想道。她就是在此处被父亲遗弃的。

她生来便拥有极致的美貌，被人们当作爱神维纳斯的新 ==化身== 来崇拜。

但现实生活中的凡人甚至都不敢接近她。

当她的父亲向光明、理性与 ==预言== 之神阿波罗的神谕寻求指引时。

他被告知要将女儿遗弃在一块岩石峭壁上，在那里她将嫁给一条 ==残忍野蛮、长着翅膀的蛇形怪物== 。

独自待在峭壁上时，普绪刻感到西风之神泽费罗斯 ==轻轻地== 将她托举到空中。

它把她放在一座宫殿前。

“ ==你到家了== ，”她听到一个看不见的声音说道。

“你的丈夫在卧室等你，要是你敢去见他的话。”

普绪刻告诉自己，她有足够的勇气。

卧室里非常昏暗，她看不见自己的丈夫。

但他一点也没有蛇的感觉。

他的皮肤很柔软，声音和举止都很温柔。

她问他是谁，但他告诉她这是他永远无法回答的一个问题。

如果她爱他，就不需要知道。

他一夜又一夜地前来。

不久之后，普绪刻怀孕了。

她很高兴，但也 ==矛盾重重== 。

她怎么能和一个从未见过的男人一起抚养孩子呢？

那天晚上，普绪刻拿着一盏油灯走近熟睡的丈夫。

她发现的是爱神丘比特，他用箭尖让众神和人类彼此 ==渴望== 。

普绪刻失手掉落油灯，滚烫的油烫伤了丘比特。

他说，自从他嫉妒的母亲维纳斯让他用箭 ==刺痛== 这位年轻女子，使她难堪以来，他就爱上了普绪刻。

但丘比特被普绪刻的美貌吸引，结果却把箭射向了自己。

然而，他不相信神和人能平等相爱。

现在她知道了他的真实模样，他们对幸福的希望破灭了，于是他飞走了。

普绪刻陷入了绝望，直到那个看不见的声音再次出现，告诉她她和丘比特确实有可能平等地相爱。

受到鼓舞，她出发去寻找他。

但维纳斯 ==拦住== 了普绪刻，并说她和丘比特只有完成一系列不可能的任务才能成婚。

首先，普绪刻被告知要在一个晚上把一大堆杂乱的种子分类整理好。

==就在她快要放弃希望的时候== ，一群蚂蚁 ==同情== 她，帮她完成了这项工作。

普绪刻成功通过了第一项考验，接下来她必须给维纳斯带回金毛羊的 ==羊毛== 。这只羊以 ==剖腹== ==流浪== 冒险者而闻名，但一位河神告诉她如何收集羊挂在 ==荆棘== 上的羊毛，她成功了。

最后，普绪刻必须前往冥界，说服冥后普罗塞尔皮娜给维纳斯一滴她的美貌装在一个盒子里。

那个看不见的声音再次来帮助普绪刻。

它告诉她要给冥界的看门狗刻耳柏洛斯带大麦饼，还要给船夫卡戎硬币，好让他渡她过 ==冥河== 。

完成了第三项也是最后一项任务后，普绪刻回到了人间。

就在维纳斯的宫殿外，她打开了装有普罗塞尔皮娜美貌的盒子，希望能给自己留一些。

但盒子里装的是睡眠，而不是美貌，普绪刻倒在了路上。

丘比特，现在伤口已经痊愈，飞向了他熟睡的新娘。

他告诉她，他错了，而且很愚蠢。

她 ==面对未知时的无畏证明== 了 ==她与他不相上下== 。

丘比特给了普绪刻 ==神食== ，即众神的 ==琼浆玉液== ，使她 ==长生不老== 。

不久之后，普绪刻生下了他们的女儿。

他们给她取名为快乐，从那以后，她、丘比特和名字意为灵魂的普绪刻就一直在扰乱人们的爱情生活。

Vocabulary, Phrases and Sentences

Word	Chinese Definition	Phonetic Symbol
curse	诅咒
incarnation	化身
intimidate	恐吓
prophecy	语言
savage	野蛮的
serpent	蛇
winge	翅膀
windgently	微风轻拂
night after night	一夜又一夜
lust after	渴望
pinprick	点
prick	扎
intercepte	拦截
just as she was abandoning hope	就在她放弃希望的时候
take pity	可怜
fleece	羊毛
disembowel	去内脏
stray	偏离
snag	障碍
briar	多刺野灌木
styx	冥河
fearlessness in the face of the unknown	面对未知的无畏
she was more than his equal	她比他强
amborsia	琥珀色
nectar	花蜜
immortal	不朽的

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